引言

1．San Angelo Standard-Times, May 27, 30, 31; June 2, 6, 1949; Steven Spencer, "Where Are We Now on Polio?" Saturday Evening Post, September 17, 1949, 26-27.

2．San Angelo Standard-Times, May 28, 1949.

3．Ibid.; also Ralph Chase, "A Circle of Wagons," West Texas Historical Association Yearbook, 1990, 98-111.

4．San Angelo Standard-Times, June 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 1949.

5．Ibid., June 4, 1949.

6．Ibid., August 7, 8, 1949.

7．Ibid., August 9, 14, 15, 1949.

8．Chase, "Circle of Wagons," 98.

9．Ibid.

10．U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Vital Statistics of the United States, 1952, volume 2, Mortality Data, 50-94.

11．Helman, Great Feuds in Modern Medicine, 140-41.

1

1．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 1-9; Sass, Polio's Legacy, 1-20; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 34.

2．Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 6; Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History, 3-23; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 270-74.

3．Dorothy Horstmann, "The Poliomyelitis Story: A Scientific Hegira," Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 1985, 79-90; Frederick Robbins and Thomas Daniel, "A History of Poliomyelitis," in Polio, ed. T. Daniel, 5-22; Joseph L. Melnick, "Enteroviruses," in Virology (2nd ed.), ed. B. N. Fields, 1990, 558-64; Karlen, Man and Microbes, 149-54; Lauro S. Halstead, "Post-Polio Syndrome," Scientific American, April 1998, 42-47; Richard L. Bruno, The Polio Paradox, 2002, 30-37.

4．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 12.

5．Ibid., 17-18.

6．Charles S. Caverly, "Preliminary Report of an Epidemic of Paralytic Disease, Occurring in Vermont, in the Summer of 1894," in Infantile Paralysis In Vermont, 1894—1922, State Department of Public Health, Burlington, Vt., 1924.

7．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 88-97; Saul Benison, "The History of Polio Research in the United States: Appraisal and Lessons," in The Twentieth Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas, ed. Gerald Holton, 1972, 313-14.

8．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 98-106; Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 105-8.

9．Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 30-32, 92-96.

10．Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 1901-1953, 22-29.

11．Lester King, "Medical Education: The Decade of Massive Change," in American Medical Association, American Medicine Comes of Age, 1840-1920, 1984, 83-87; Starr, Social Transformation of American Medicine, 116-27; Ludmerer, Time to Heal, 3-25.

12．Chernow, Titan, 468.

13．Burnow, Organized Medicine in the Progressive Era, 11-13; Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, 108.

14．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 30-31; Chernow, Titan, 417-18, 471.

15．Benison, "History of Polio Research," 312-14; De Kruif, The Sweeping Wind, 12-15.

16．J. T. Flexner, Maverick's Progress, 8; J. T. Flexner, An American Saga, 218-35; Bonner, Iconoclast, 32-34.

17．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 59-61; Flexner, American Saga, 440.

18．Corner, Rockefeller Institute, 60-61; Chernow, Titan, 478; Wall, Andrew Carnegie, 832.

19．Caverly, "Anterior Polio in Vermont in the Year 1910," in Infantile Paralysis in Vermont, 39; California State Board of Health, "Poliomyelitis," Bulletin for Health Officials, 1912; Robert Lovett, "The Occurrence of Infantile Paralysis in Massachusetts in 1910," Monthly Bulletin of the Massachusetts State Board of Health for 1911; F. G. Boudreau, "Acute Poliomyelitis with Special Reference to the Disease in Ohio," Monthly Bulletin, Ohio State Board of Health, January, February, March 1914.

20．Saul Benison, "The Enigma of Poliomyelitis: 1910," in Freedom and Reform: Essays in Honor of Henry Steele Commager, ed. Harold Hyman, 1967, 251-52.

21．Dorothy Horstmann oral interview, April 26, 1990, in Daniel Wilson File, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.

22．Williams, Virus Hunters, 136.

23．《纽约时报》，1911年3月9日。弗莱克斯纳关于鼻腔传播途径的“发现”发表在他与Paul A. Lewis合著的论文《猴子急性脊髓灰质炎的传播》（The Transmission of Acute Poliomyelitis to Monkeys，Journal of the American Medical Association，1909年11月13日及12月4日）中。他没有直接说鼻腔是脊髓灰质炎唯一的传播途径，虽然他显然是这么认为的。

24．Tom Rivers, 192-93.

25．Horstmann, "Poliomyelitis Story," 81-82; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 28.

26．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin, undated, 1936, File 6, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society.研究所内部关于《阿罗史密斯》的争议，详见Richard Lingman, Sinclair Lewis, 2002, 206-9; Mark Schorer, Sinclair Lewis: An American Life, 1961, 366-67, 410-20; Charles Rosenberg, "Martin Arrowsmith, The Scientist as Hero," American Quarterly, Fall 1963, 447-58.在撰写《阿罗史密斯》的过程中，辛克莱·刘易斯得到了保罗·德克吕夫的协助；当时，这位聪慧而略有怪癖的研究者兼科学作家，刚刚因弗莱克斯纳施加的压力而从洛克菲勒研究所离职。不出所料，这本书在研究所里引发了骚动。“大家都急着想看《阿罗史密斯》把研究所里的人写成了什么样，这很正常，”一位科学家朋友写信告诉弗莱克斯纳，并补充说，“这本书令人不安，因为它对科学和科研的描述并不真实……怎么说呢，写得颇为恶心。”亚伯拉罕·弗莱克斯纳（Abraham Flexner）表示，这本书“扭曲”了他哥哥的形象。见Peyton Rous to Simon Flexner, Spring 1925, Collection O, Peyton Rous File, 4; Abraham Flexner to Simon Flexner, June 13, 1925, Collection 1, Abraham Flexner File; both in Simon Flexner Papers, Rockefeller Institute.德克吕夫在脊髓灰质炎研究工作中扮演的角色，见P54-59。

27．关于1916年大流行的详细情况请见：Gould, A Summer Plague, 3-28; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 30-71.

28．David Rosner, "Introduction," 7-15, and Gretchen Condran, "Changing Patterns of Epidemic Disease in New York City," 30-37, both in Hives of Sickness, ed. D. Rosner.

29．Alan Kraut, "Plagues and Prejudice: Nativism's Construction of Disease in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century New York City," 71-75, in Rosner, Hives of Sickness; Markel, Quarantine, 15-39.

30．Rosner, "Introduction," 14-15.

31．Kraut, Silent Travelers, 109; New York Times, July 8, 1916.

32．Naomi Rogers, "Dirt, Flies and Immigrants: Explaining the Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, 1900—1916," in Sickness and Health in America, ed. Judith Walter and Ronald Numbers, 1997, 543-54.

33．New York Times, July 26, 1916; Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 54.

34．New York Times, July 14, 1916.

35．Rogers, Dirt and Disease, 53.

36．Rogers, "Dirt, Flies, and Immigrants," 543.

37．Ibid., 544.

2

1．Goldberg, The Making of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 26-27; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 1884-1933, 267-71, 305-6; New York Times, July 23, 1921.

2．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 9.

3．Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 647-51; Anna Roosevelt, "How Polio Helped F.D.R.," The Woman with Woman's Digest, July 1949, 54.

4．Eleanor Roosevelt, This Is My Story, 330; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 308; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 12.

5．Davis, FDR, 651.

6．在一封写给詹姆斯·“罗西”·罗斯福（James “Rosy” Roosevelt）的长信里，埃莉诺·罗斯福详细描述了罗斯福发病早期的情况：脊髓灰质炎如何发作，医生如何上门诊疗，全家的反应，罗斯福的精神状态。见Eleanor Roosevelt to "Rosy," August 14, 1921, "Family and Personal Correspondence," 1894-1957, Box 2, "Condolence Letters After FDR's Polio Attack," Eleanor Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

7．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 589; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 337-38; R. W. Lovett, The Treatment of Infantile Paralysis, 1916.

8．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 44.

9．虽然罗斯福并未过于责怪基恩医生的诊疗让他的情况恶化，但回想起来的时候，他也同意基恩的疗法是错误的。“对于脊髓灰质炎，最好的治疗方法是，”他写信告诉一位病友，“彻底的休息静养，直至肌肉酸痛彻底消退。在此之前，完全不要按摩。等到肌肉不再酸痛以后，再进行轻柔的按摩和锻炼，以恢复肌肉功能。”见FDR to G. S. Barrows, October 31, 1921, "Family, Business, Personal," Box 23, Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

10．Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 308-10; Anna Roosevelt, "How Polio Helped F.D.R.," 54.

11．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 43.

12．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 187-88, 203, 368-69, 407-10.

13．《纽约时报》2003年3月4日发表的Abigail Zuger作品《“你会冻死的！”这仅仅是老太太吓唬人的口头禅吗？》（“You'll Catch Your Death！”An Old Wives' Tale？）简要介绍了关于寒冷的最新医学理论；Ward,A First-Class Temperament，595。在罹患脊髓灰质炎的21年前，罗斯福做了扁桃体摘除术，后来一位医生猜测，这次手术可能对他后来患病有所影响。研究者相信，夏天（或者说脊髓灰质炎流行季）不宜进行扁桃体摘除术，因为手术过程中，神经末梢可能接触到脊髓灰质炎病毒。但没有证据表明，做过扁桃体摘除术的人更容易罹患脊髓灰质炎。见Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat Monthly，1957年6月刊，P348-49。

14．See Armond Goldman et al., "What Was the Cause of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's Paralytic Illness?" Journal of Medical Biography, 2003, 232-40; also Associated Press wire story, November 3, 2003.

15．Hoy, Chasing Dirt, 3-27; Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 1-20; Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell, ix-xix.

16．Ziporyn, Disease in the Popular American Press, 9-14; Tomes, Gospel of Germs, 26-47; Brandt, No Magic Bullet; Walzer, Typhoid Mary.

17．Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine, 180-97; Andrew McClary, "Germs Are Everywhere: The Germ Threat as Seen in Magazine Articles, 1890-1920," Journal of American Culture, Spring 1980, 38-39.

18．McClary, "Germs Are Everywhere," 37.

19．Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 10.

20．Ibid., 249-50.

21．Vinikas, Soft Soap, Hard Sell, 28-44.

22．Ibid., pp. 43, 79-94; Martin, Flexible Bodies, 23-33.

23．New York Times, September 16, 1921; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 600-603.

24．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 595.

25．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 28-33.

26．Lily Norton to Helen Whidden, November 14, 1921, Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt, Small Collections, "Reminiscences by Contemporaries," Subject File: Lily Norton, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

27．Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Rights of Man, 1951, 267; Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage, 1932, 530-33; Edwin Weinstein, Woodrow Wilson: A Medical and Psychological Biography, 1981, 348-70; John Morton Cooper, Jr., The Warrior and the Priest, 1983, 335-42.

28．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 781 83; Lewis L. Gould, The Modern American Presidency, 2003, 82-83.

29．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, xiii-xiv.

30．Franklin Roosevelt to Thomas C. Whitlock, March 23, 1923, Box 23, "Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

31．Goldberg, Making of FDR, 80; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 657.

32．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 40-42; Dorothy Ducas, "Unto the Least of These ... The Story of Basil O'Connor," Sigma Phi Epsilon Journal, February 1941; Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 119-20, 143.

33．Smith, Patenting the Sun, 54-55; Goldberg, Making of FDR, 81.

34．"George Foster Peabody," and "The Peabody Awards," in www.peabody.uga.edu; "George Foster Peabody," Dictionary of American Biography, 1958, 520-21. Each year, in his honor, the University of Georgia hands out the internationally known George Foster Peabody Awards for excellence in broadcasting and journalism.

35．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Spring, 32-34.

36．Nathaniel Altman, "Hot Springs and Mineral Spas in North America," in Healing Springs: The Ultimate Guide to Taking the Waters, ed. N. Altman; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 645. “过去6周里，”罗斯福写信告诉自己的医生，“我每周游三次泳——开始是在阿斯特家的泳池里，后来是在我自己家的池塘里。我的腿在水里行动自如，我不需要任何东西的辅助就能浮起来。事实上，我认为我的膝盖和双脚在不断好转。” Franklin Roosevelt to Dr. George Draper, August 10, 1922, Box 23, "Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis, Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

37．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 31-43; Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 3-16; Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, "A Brief History of the Springs," https://www.rooseveltrehab.org/history.htm.

38．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 13-14.

39．Roosevelt, This I Remember, 26-27.

40．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 25.

41．Ibid., 28; Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 33.

42．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 28; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 707; Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Ordeal, 193.

43．Davis, FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 767-68.

44．Cleburne Gregory, "Franklin Roosevelt Will Swim to Health," Atlanta Journal, October 26, 1924.

45．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 76-78; Noel Burtenshaw, "Warm Springs and Its Magic Waters," Georgia Bulletin, February 4, 1982.

46．Eleanor Roosevelt to Marion Dickerman, quoted in Davis, Invincible Summer, 61.

47．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 728. For a full accounting of the sale, complete with legal documents, see Roosevelt, This I Remember, Appendix Ⅱ.

48．Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation, "Our History ... 75 Years of Commitment to Service," https://www.rooseveltrehab.org/history.htm; Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 45.

49．Jean Schauble, "Roosevelt and Warm Springs," Columbia Library Columns, February 1973, 3-9; Dr. George Draper to Franklin Roosevelt, July 25, 1925; Roosevelt to Draper, July 27, 1925, Box 23, Family, Business, Personal," Subject File: Infantile Paralysis," Franklin Delano Roosevelt Papers, FDR Library.

50．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 31-117; Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 56.

51．Lippman, The Squire of Warm Springs, 50; Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 709. 虽然富兰克林和埃莉诺的关系仍然非常密切，他们也经常谈论政治和家庭事务，但是到1924年，他们共度的时间已经大幅减少。“他们的生活走向了不同的方向。”埃莉诺的传记作者Blanche Wiesen Cook写道，“他们的兴趣不同，喜欢打交道的人也不一样。”毫无疑问，罗斯福太太希望尽量减少在沃姆斯普林斯停留的时间；她不在的时候，罗斯福忠诚的秘书米西·莱汉德就代替她履行女主人和红颜知己的职责。见Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 314-17.

52．Quoted in Smith, Patenting the Sun, 56.

53．David Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929—1945, 1999, 94-97; Mark H. Leff, "Franklin Roosevelt," in The Reader's Companion to the American Presidency, ed. Alan Brinkley and David Dyer, 2000, 369-71; Cook, Eleanor Roosevelt, 302-37.

54．罗斯福退回了这张支票，并告诉拉斯科布，也许将来我会需要你的慷慨帮助。事情果然如此。接下来的那些年里，拉斯科布向沃姆斯普林斯基金会捐助了10万美元以上的善款，成为基金会最大的捐助者之一。见Friedel, Franklin D. Roosevelt, 255.

55．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 72-74; Freidel, FDR: The Ordeal, 257-69.

56．Ward, A First-Class Temperament, 794.

3

1．Gould, Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans, 256; Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, 91-92; McElvaine, The Great Depression, 52.

2．Black, Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom, 211.

3．Gallagher, FDR's Splendid Deception, 81-82.

4．Ibid., 87.

5．Daniel J. Wilson, "A Crippling Fear: Experiencing Polio in the Era of FDR," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1998, 490.一位历史学家特别强调说，罗斯福小心地混淆了“疾病”和“残疾”之间的关键区别。见John Duffy, "Franklin Roosevelt: Ambiguous Symbol for Disabled Americans," Midwest Quarterly, Autumn 1987, 113-35.

6．See Amy Fairchild, "The Polio Narratives: Dialogues with FDR," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2001, 488-534.

7．New York Journal-American, January 17, 19, 20, 21, 1938.

8．Wilson, "A Crippling Fear," 487-88.

9．Ibid., 483-84.

10．Ibid., 495; also Daniel J. Wilson, "Crippled Manhood: Infantile Paralysis and the Construction of Masculinity," Medical Humanities Review, Fall 1998, 9-27.

11．Alice Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," Good Housekeeping, July 1953, 209.

12．David Sills, The Volunteers, 42.

13．Cutlip, The Unseen Power, 531-52; "Carl Byoir: A Retrospective," Museum of Public Relations, 2002.

14．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 361; Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 229-31. For the career of Henry Doherty, see Rose, Cities of Heat and Light.

15．"Letter Number One to Town Publishers," December 13, 1933, in Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.这些信是拜奥尔写的，但信件署名是“全国主席亨利·多尔蒂”。

16．Letter Number Two, December 22, 1933; Henry Doherty, National Chairman, to His Honor, The Mayor, January 5, 1934, ibid.

17．Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 43; Dorothy Ducas, "Crusader-By-Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished manuscript in Basil O'Connor File, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).

18．Byoir, "Organizing Suggestions," in Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Presidential Library; Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 366; for Wiley Post, see B. Sterling and F. Sterling, Forgotten Eagle: Wiley Post.

19．"Whole City Joins in Tribute To President on 52nd Birthday: New York Scene of 40 of 6,000 Balls to Benefit Warm Springs," New York Times, January 31, 1934; press release, "Birthday Ball for the President," Basil O'Connor Vertical File, FDR Library.

20．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 229-31; Cutlip, The Unseen Power, 558-59.

21．Carter, The Gentle Legions, 77; "Christmas Seals Celebrates 90 Years of Holiday Giving and Tradition," American Lung Association Web site.

22．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 129; Carter, Gentle Legions, 38-62.

23．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 242-91.

24．Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," 209-10; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 39.

25．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 367-68.

26．Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 44.

27．New York World-Telegram and Sun, January 27, 1938; New York Post, January 25, 1938. 罗斯福的清洗行动非常失败，几乎所有他打算干掉的人都安然无恙。国会议员约翰·J.奥康纳是坦慕尼协会的忠实成员，他的脾气比较暴躁，用《时代周刊》的话来说，“应该大受欢迎的国会里最不受人待见的议员之一”。约翰是国会规则委员会主席，也是巴塞尔·奥康纳的哥哥。1938年，他也是罗斯福想干掉的人之一，这实在是很讽刺。见James Patterson, Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal, 1967, 53, 278-87.

28．"Cripples' Money: Who Gets the Proceeds of the Presidential Birthday Balls?" 48 pp. Copy in author's possession; Chicago Tribune, December 21, 1938.

29．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "Organization Chart," MDA; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, p. 57.

30．Goldman, Banjo Eyes, 194-96; The Eddie Cantor Appreciation Society, "The Eddie Cantor Story," https://www.eddiecantor.com.

31．Goldman, Banjo Eyes, xiii.

32．Cutlip, Fund Raising in the United States, 385.

33．Ibid.

34．Ibid. Also Ira T. Smith, "Dear Mr. President ...": The Story of Fifty Years in the White House Mail Room, 1949, 157-61.

35．Smith, "Dear Mr. President ...," 159.

36．Ed Reiter, "Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Man on the Marching Dime," June 28, 1999, Professional Coin Grading Service Web site.国会保守党人试图把一角硬币上的罗斯福换成罗纳德·里根的最新努力遭到强烈抵制。南希·里根反对这个主意，她说：“我并不支持这一提案，而且我能肯定，罗尼也不会支持。”见Robert Scheer's column in the Los Angeles Times, December 13, 2003; and USA Today, December 5, 2003.

37．Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 401-4; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 305; Benison, Tom Rivers, 182.

38．Paul de Kruif, "De Kruif Emphasizes Mystery of Infantile Paralysis," New York World-Telegram & Sun, January 24, 1948; Benison, Tom Rivers, 183-84.

39．Maurice Brodie and William H. Park, "Active Immunization Against Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association, October 5, 1935, 1089-93.

40．"Specter of Paralysis Stalks Carolina," Literary Digest, July 1935.

41．Benison, Tom Rivers, 185.

42．H. V. Wyatt, "Provocation Poliomyelitis: Neglected Clinical Observations from 1914—1950," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 1981, 550-55; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 255-60.

43．Lederer, Subjected to Science, 107; Benison, Tom Rivers, 189.

44．"William Hallock Park," Medical Violet (NYU Medical School yearbook), 1939, 43, 163; Altman, Who Goes First, 126-28; Hooper, The River, 198; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 254-61, 270-72. The notice of Brodie's death can be found in the Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1939, 632.

45．德克吕夫对帕克-布罗迪惨败的解释见President's Birthday Ball Commission for Infantile Paralysis Research, "Progress Report," March 28, 1937, 11, FDR Presidential Library; Carter, Breakthrough, 24-25.

46．"Biographical Sketch of Thomas M. Rivers, M.D., Thomas Rivers File, MDA.

47．Ibid. Also Benison, Tom Rivers, 67-225; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 147-48.

48．Benison, Tom Rivers, 232.

49．Howard Howe to David Bodian, January 24, 1942, in Folder 1 (unprocessed), David Bodian Papers, Chesney Medical Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical School.

4

1．Hawkins, The Man in the Iron Lung, 67.

2．Ibid., 66-70.

3．一流医学史家戴维·罗思曼（David Rothman）在最近的一篇文章中写道，铁肺的出现“让美国人有机会表达、吸收接下来数十年里影响全国的价值观……铁肺的发明，让我们建立了新的伦理观：每个人都有权享用拯救生命的技术，哪怕它带来的益处十分微小，需要付出的代价非常沉重，那也是值得的。”

他补充说，正是从那时候起，医生开始用铁肺帮助那些生还机会渺茫的患者。结果，病人的死亡率非常高，所以铁肺既被视为救命法宝，又被看作夺命陷阱，它“坚固耐用、拥有强大的力量”，同时又“令人恐惧和反感”。见Rothman, "The Iron Lung and Democratic Medicine," in Beginnings Count: The Technological Imperative in American Health Care, ed. D. Rothman, 1997, 42-66.

4．"Life in a Respirator," Time, June 14, 1937, 32; "Iron Lung: Metal Prison for a Traveling Paralysis Patient," Newsweek, June 12, 1937, 21.

5．Ibid.

6．"Snite at Lourdes," Time, June 12, 1939; 55.

7．Dorothy Corson, "Frederick Snite: The Man in the Iron Lung, a Legend at Notre Dame," in Notre Dame Legends and Lore, https://www.nd.edu.

8．"Married," Newsweek, August 21, 1939, 9; "The Man in the Iron Lung," Time, November 18, 1946, 68-69; "A Man Without Worries," Time, November 22, 1954, 59-60; Hawkins, Man in the Iron Lung, 243.

9．Hawkins, The Man in the Iron Lung, 174; Howard Markel, "The Genesis of the Iron Lung," Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 1994, 1179.

10．Sills, The Volunteers, 116-48.

11．Ibid., 134.

12．Gould, A Summer Plague, 79-80.

13．"Remarks of Franklin D. Roosevelt at Tuskegee Institute, March 30, 1939"; "Statement at the Dedication of the Infantile Paralysis Unit at Tuskegee in Alabama, January 15, 1941"; in The American Presidency Project: Public Papers of the President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu.

14．Gould, A Summer Plague, 81-83; McMurry, George Washington Carver, 252-55; "World's Great Men of Color: George Washington Carver," in https://www.marcusgarvey.com.

15．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, The Tuskegee Institute Infantile Paralysis Center, n.d., 10 pp.塔斯基吉在训练护士照顾残疾者的工作中扮演的角色，见Kimberly Carter, "Trumpets of Attack: Collaborative Efforts Between Nursing and Philanthropies to Care for the Child Crippled with Polio, 1930 to 1959," Public Health Nursing, July-August 2001.

16．Harry Weaver to Thomas Francis, December 6, 1946, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan.

17．关于1916年大流行时涉及的种族问题，见Gould, A Summer Plague, 8；1946年的调查，见“The Incidence of Poliomyelitis and Its Crippling Effects as Recorded in Family Surveys,” Public Health Reports, March 8, 1946, 345-46.

18．Francis to Weaver, December 10, 1946, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan; Weaver to Francis, February 6, 1947, "Weaver Correspondence," Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan.

19．"Fund-Raising," Box 1, Campaign Materials, 1939, 1944, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA); Smith, Patenting the Sun, 83.

20．Franklin Roosevelt to Basil O'Connor, November 10, 1942, in Basil O'Connor File, MDA.

21．"Fund-Raising," Box 1, 1944, 1945, ibid.

22．See especially "Motion Picture Campaign Book," and "Motion Picture Industries Campaign," ibid.

23．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "Facts and Figures About Infantile Paralysis," Publication No. 59, 1947; Sills, The Volunteers, 128-30.

24．Infantile Paralysis, Life, July 31, 1944, 25-28.

25．Sink, The Grit Behind the Miracle, 115-19, 139-42.

26．Ibid., 53-61.

27．Ibid., 68.

28．Ibid., 35-36, 41; "Infantile Paralysis," Life, July 31, 1944, 25-28.

29．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, "The Miracle of Hickory," n.d., MDA; Rose, Images of America, 24-25.

30．Greensboro Daily News, August 9, 1944, quoted in Sink, The Grit Behind the Miracle, 69-70.

31．Ibid.

32．Ibid., 117.

33．Ibid., 121, 149.

34．Elizabeth Kenny, And They Shall Walk, 23; Robert Yoder, "Healer from the Outback," Saturday Evening Post, January 17, 1942, 18-19, 68.

35．Victor Cohn, Sister Kenny, 38-50.

36．Sonda Oppewal, "Sister Kenny, an Australian Nurse, and Treatment of Poliomyelitis Victims," Image: the Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 1997, 83-87; Naomi Rogers, "Sister Kenny Goes to Washington: Polio, Populism, and Medical Politics in Postwar America," in Robert Johnston, The Politics of Healing, 2004, 102-3.

37．Walter I. Galland, "The Post-Paralytic Treatment of Poliomyelitis from the Orthopedic Standpoint," reprinted in Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, September 1969, 525-30; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 338-40.

38．"Verdict on Sister Kenny," Newsweek, June 26, 1944, 77-78; Gould, A Summer Plague, 96, 108; Margaret Denton, "Further Comments on the Elizabeth Kenny Controversy," Australian Historical Studies, 2000, 157.

39．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 127; Benison, Tom Rivers, 282.由于肯尼护士带来了脊髓灰质炎患者家属和医生的推荐信，所以里弗斯建议奥康纳不要彻底拒绝肯尼护士，最好找几位“不带偏见、愿意详细考察（她的说法）”的“有道德感的医生”。Rivers to O'Connor, March 4, 1941, Basil O'Connor File, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society.

40．Gould, A Summer Plague, 96; Marvin Kline (former mayor of Minneapolis), "The Most Unforgettable Character I've Met," Reader's Digest, August 1959, 205.

41．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 83-84.

42．Kline, "Unforgettable Character," 205; Miland E. Knapp, M.D., "The Contribution of Sister Elizabeth Kenny to the Treatment of Poliomyelitis," Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, August 1955, 510-17.

43．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 147.

44．Yoder, "Healer from the Outback"; Lois Miller, "Sister Kenny vs. Infantile Paralysis," Reader's Digest, December 1941, 1-6; Lois Miller, "Sister Kenny vs. the Medical Old Guard," Reader's Digest, October 1944, 65-71; Cohn, Sister Kenny, 192-93; "Movie of the Week: Sister Kenny" and "A Doctor Comments on ‘Sister Kenny,'" Life, September 16, 1946, 21.

45．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 172.

46．Ibid., 173, 213

47．Ibid., 151 52; "Verdict on Sister Kenny," Newsweek, June 26, 1944, 76 78.

48．Cohn, Sister Kenny, 206 7.

49．Ibid., 234.

5

1．Walker, Roosevelt and the Warm Springs Story, 301.

2．Fund Raising Records, Series 7, 1944, "Motion Picture Campaign Book," March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).

3．1946, Motion Picture Industry Campaign, MDA.

4．Fund Raising Records, Series 8, United Funds, "Memoranda and Reports, NFIP," MDA.

5．Ibid.

6．Fund Raising Records, Series 7, Policy and Procedures, "History and Responsibilities of the Fund Raising Department, NFIP, 1943 1955," MDA.

7．Publications Collection, Series 2, Periodicals; Medical Programs Documents, Series 15, Box 15, Public Relations Department, 1937—1949; and Science Writers, 1946—1964, MDA.

8．Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 74.

9．Fund Raising Records, Series 4, Poster Children, "Donald Anderson-1946 March of Dimes Poster Boy," MDA.

10．Memo: Joe Kievit to Trudy Whitman, December 15, 1949; "Donald Anderson- 1946 March of Dimes Poster Boy," MDA.

11．"Report on Donald Anderson," n.d., MDA.

12．Memo: Felix Montes to Trudy Whitman, December 3, 1948, MDA.

13．后来的海报儿童拍摄的照片一般都拄着拐杖或是戴着腿部支架，或者二者兼有。但基金会传达的信息一直是乐观的，微笑的孩子正在康复。事实上，到20世纪40年代末，一毛钱进行曲还会随海报分发题为“看，我又能走路了”、“因为有你，我才能行走”的小册子。见“Publications Collection: Series 2—Periodicals, Series 3—Poliomyelitis,” MDA.

14．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 39-42; Mee, A Nearly Normal Life, 3-13.

15．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 40.

16．Davis, Passage Through Crisis, 37.

17．Black, In the Shadow of Polio, 47.

18．Spock, The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care, 419-20.

19．"Polio Panic," Time, August 5, 1946, 55-56; "The Polio Scourge," Newsweek, August 19, 1946, 22-24.

20．Fund Raising Records, Series 8, United Funds, "Memoranda and Reports," MDA.

21．Sills, The Volunteers; Nancy Weiss, "Mother: The Invention of Necessity: Dr. Benjamin Spock's Baby and Child Care," American Quarterly, Winter 1977, 519-46.

22．Annual Programs for "Fashion Show"; Miss Whitelaw to Miss Kay, January 11, 1945; in Fund Raising Records, Series 3: Fashion Show, MDA.

23．"Fashion Show, Program Scripts," MDA.

24．John Clifford to Elaine Whitelaw, November 27, 1946, MDA.

25．See 1949, "Jewel Tour" (The Court of Jewels; Harry Winston Collection), MDA.

26．Fund Raising Records, Report: 1950, "Mothers' March on Polio, Maricopa Chapter, NFIP," MDA; "March of Dimes Promotional Film," MDA; Sills, The Volunteers, 158-59.

27．"Chronological Outline of Mothers' March," MDA; also Phoenix Gazette, January 2, 1950; Arizona Republic, January 17, 1950.

28．"Foreword" of "Chronological Outline of Mothers' March," MDA.

29．"March of Dimes Promotional Film," MDA

30．Mothers' March Folder (including "Plan Book" and "Rural Supplement to Plan Book"), in Series 4, Institutional History, Box 8, MDA.

31．Sills, The Volunteers, 160.

32．Ibid., 184-85.

33．Ibid., 158; Joanne Meyerowitz, "Beyond the Feminine Mystique: A Reassesment of Postwar Mass Culture, 1946—1958," in Meyerowitz, Not June Cleaver, 229-62.

34．Fund Raising Records, "History and Responsibility of the Fund Raising Department," MDA.

35．Allan Brandt and Martha Gardner, "The Golden Age of Medicine?" in Cooper and Pickstone, Medicine in the Twentieth Century, 21-37; Brandt, No Magic Bullet, 40-41; Tomes, The Gospel of Germs, 254.

36．Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 256-60; Brandt and Gardner, "Golden Age of Medicine?" 26.

37．National Vital Statistics Reports, vol. 51. no. 3, December 19, 2002, 29; David Cutler and Ellen Meara, "Changes in the Age Distribution of Mortality Over the 20th Century," National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 8556, October 2001.

6

1．See "Grant to National Foundation, 1941—42," and draft of article on Francis by Paul Ellis, January 7, 1947; both in National Foundation File, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Francis Papers).

2．Thomas Francis to Hart Van Riper, August 28, 1947, "Van Riper Correspondence," Box 51, Francis Papers.

3．See David Bodian, "Poliomyelitis and the Sources of Useful Knowledge," Johns Hopkins Medical Journal, 1976, 131.

4．萨宾关于此类事件的通信记录之一，可参见Correspondence 1935—39, Box 3; Correspondence, 1946—47, Box 4; General Correspondence, 1950, Box 4: General Correspondence, 1953, Box 5; Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati Medical School (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, UC). For Peter Olitsky, see Correspondence with Public, Peter Olitsky Papers, Archives of the Rockefeller Institute, Sleepy Hollow, New York (hereafter cited as Olitsky Papers). Also Dr. J. Plesch to Dr. Hart Van Riper, August 26, 1946, "Van Riper Correspondence," Box 51, Francis Papers; Albert Sabin to George Lyon, December 4, 1940; Sabin in "Science Service," June 6, 1940; "Mothers' Milk Has Chemicals to Kill Viruses," New York Herald-Tribune, May 29, 1951.

根据国家基金会的记录，对于人感染脊髓灰质炎的途径，最常见的错误观点包括：用被污染的水沐浴、吃了脊髓灰质炎病毒曾经停留过的农作物、喝了太多的“甜饮料”（尤其是可口可乐，美国南部有很多人相信这个流言）。"Sources of Incorrect Information Which Have Recent Wide Circulation," Medical Program, Box 14, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).

5．Jonas Salk to W. S. McEllroy, December 9, 1947, Box 4, Folder 7, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers); W. H. Bradley, "Meteorological Conditions in Relation to Poliomyelitis in England and Wales, 1947—1952," Monthly Bulletin of the Ministry of Health, January 1953, 2-14.

6．"Resumes of Grantee's Progress Reports," Box 9, Medical Program, 1944; Box 12, Medical Program "Chemical Research," 1948; Box 15, Medical Program, "Research Program," 1951; all in MDA. Also "Polio Snake Venom" file, in Newsweek Morgue, Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin.

7．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 412-13; Aaron Klein, Trial by Fury, 45-46.

8．Carter, Breakthrough, 57.

9．Bodian, "Poliomyelitis and the Source of Useful Knowledge," 131.

10．20世纪40年代，国家基金会资助了一些项目，希望通过“冲洗”脊髓灰质炎患者的脊液，找到对抗这种疾病的化学方法。见Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 1947 (ch. 7, "A Pill for Polio,"), 60-77.

11．Dowling, Fighting Infection, 212-13; Robert Coughlin, Tracking the Killer, Life, February 22, 1954, 121-25; Williams, Virus Hunters, 251-69.

12．Lee Salk, My Father, My Son, 10.

13．Interview with Jonas Salk, May 16, 1991, in "Hall of Science and Exploration," www.achievement.org; author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.

14．Ibid.

15．"New Townsend Harris High Keeps Old Goals," New York Times, June 10, 1985; "Our History," Townsend Harris Online; Traub, City on a Hill, 32.

16．S. Willis Rudy, The College of the City of New York: A History, 1949, 294.

17．Traub, City On A Hill, 9, 34; CCNY Alumni Association, "Facts on City College" and "City's Nobel Laureates of the Twentieth Century," in www.alumniassociationccny.org.

18．Jonas Salk college transcript, Jonas Salk File, CCNY, Division of Archives and Special Collections, Morris Raphael Cohen Library.

19．Microcosm 1934 (CCNY Student Yearbook), 60-63; Howe, A Margin of Hope, 61-89.

20．Microcosm 1934, 120.

21．Interview with Jonas Salk, May 16, 1991.

22．Alan Dumont and Claude Heaton, The First One Hundred and Twenty-Five Years of the New York University School of Medicine, 1966, 3-40; Thomas Francis Jones, New York University: 1832—1932, 1933, 281-304.

23．Gerard Burrow, A History of Yale's School of Medicine, 2002, 107, 143-44.

24．"New York University College of Medicine, Schedule of Exercises" (1935—1936, 1936—1937, 1937—1938, 1938—1939); "Third Year Class Section Lists" (1937—1938); "Fourth Year Class Section Lists" (1938—1939), NYU Medical School Archives.

25．The Medical Violet 1939 (NYU School of Medicine Student Yearbook), 93.

26．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.

27．Carter, Breakthrough, 37.

28．Ibid., 41.

29．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003.

30．Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Subject: Jonas Salk," File 161-22356.

31．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, September 20, 1941, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers; John R. Paul, "Thomas Francis Jr.," Biographical Memoirs, 1974, 57-91.

32．Thomas Francis to Jonas Salk, December 18, 1841, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.索尔克没能进入洛克菲勒研究所，最大的阻碍来自首席病毒学家托马斯·里弗斯。众所周知，里弗斯讨厌闪族，他还否决了研究所为阿尔伯特·萨宾提供永久职位的提案；不过后来，在索尔克研发脊髓灰质炎疫苗的过程中，里弗斯将扮演关键角色。

33．Thomas Francis to Francis Blake, Chairman, National Research Council, January 17, 1942, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.弗朗西斯和Francis Blake是老朋友。

34．Col. S. J. Kopetzsky to Jonas Salk, March 13, 1942, Box 5, Salk Papers.

35．Thomas Francis to Selective Service Board 45, February 13, 1942; Thomas Francis to Col. Samuel Kopetzsky, March 24, 1942; Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, April 8, 1942; all in Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.

36．Paul, "Thomas Francis Jr.," 69; Benison, Tom Rivers, 256.

37．Benison, Tom Rivers, 257.

38．Kolata, Flu, 3-33; Crawford, The Invisible Enemy, 96-98; Crosby, America's Forgotten Pandemic, 203.

39．Flu, 6-7, 16; Crawford, Invisible Enemy, 97; Grob, The Deadly Truth, 224-25.

40．Susan Plotkin and Stanley Plotkin, "A Short History of Vaccination," in Plotkin and Mortimer, Vaccines, 1-7; Dowling, Fighting Infection, 197-200.

离开西奈山前往安娜堡前夕，索尔克写信告诉弗朗西斯：“现在我们这有一位病人，按照医院工作人员的说法，他们在1918年的大流行中见过与她类似的临床现象和临床病程。我们尚未发现细菌病原体，我相信她很快就会死去。” Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, February 7, 1942, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.

41．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003; Carter, Breakthrough, 45; Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Subject: Jonas Salk."

42．Thomas Francis Jr., "Draft of Grant Proposal to the National Foundation," n.d., Box 51; Henry Vaughan to Basil O'Connor, June 26, 1942; Basil O'Connor to Alexander Ruthven, President, University of Michigan, April 8, 1943, both in Box 51, Francis Papers.国家基金会为索尔克提供了为期三年、总额20万美元的资金，是当时基金会金额最大的资助之一。

43．索尔克在学术界的上升之路，见Dean H. F. Vaughan to Jonas Salk, June 10, 1943; Vaughan to Salk, October 16, 1944; Thomas Francis to Provost James P. Adams, June 26, 1946; Herbert G. Watkins (University Secretary) to Salk, July 29, 1946.延期入伍事宜，可参见Francis G. Blake Affidavit, October 21, 1943; Henry F. Vaughan to Clarence Moll, June 14, 1944; Thomas Francis to Clarence Moll, January 18, 1945; all in Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.索尔克的引言，见Carter, Breakthrough, 48.

44．Carter, Breakthrough, 51; Hershel Griffin, "Thomas Francis Jr., MD: Epidemiologist to the Military," Archives of Environmental Health, September 1970, 252-55; Cohen, Shots in the Dark, 26; Carter, Breakthrough, 48.

45．Dowling, Fighting Infection, 200; Williams, Virus Hunters, 223-27.

46．Williams, Virus Hunters, 225; Brian Murphy and Robert Webster, "Orthomyxoviruses," in Virology (2nd ed.), ed. Bernard N. Fields, 1116-20; Crawford, Invisible Enemy, 92, 229; Thomas Francis to Carolyn Kingdon, November 1, 1947, Box 51, Francis Papers.

47．Carter, Breakthrough, 51.

48．Ibid.

49．Ibid.; Benison, Tom Rivers, 258; Williams, Virus Hunter, 212.

1948年，弗朗西斯入选美国国家科学院，当时索尔克已经去往匹兹堡，他给弗朗西斯发去了贺信：“这真的很棒，有时候你怀疑自己浪费了时间和精力，入选科学院也许能让你打消这样的疑虑。”见Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, May 17, 1948, Box 5, Salk Papers.

50．Carter, Breakthrough, 51.

51．Paul Stumpf to Jonas Salk, n.d., Box 4, Folder 8, Salk Papers.

52．Thomas Francis, "Memorandum: Concerning Doctor Salk and Parke-Davis & Company," September 1, 1945, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.

53．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, December 26, 1945, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.

54．Max Lauffer to Jonas Salk, June 30, 1947, Salk File, Edward Litchfield Papers, University of Pittsburgh Archive; Carter, Breakthrough, 53.

55．Jonas Salk to Thomas Francis, August 25, 1947, Jonas Salk File, Francis Papers.

56．Willard Glazier, "The Great Furnace of America," in Pittsburgh, ed. Roy Lubove, 1976, 23.

57．Michael Weber, Don't Call Me Boss: David L. Lawrence, Pittsburgh's Renaissance Mayor, 1988, 202-3; Lubove. Pittsburgh, 196.

58．"Pittsburgh's New Powers," Fortune, February, 1947, 69-74; Jonas Salk to Stella Barlow, n.d., Salk Papers.

59．Weber, Don't Call Me Boss, 228-76; Robert C. Alberts, Pitt: The Story of the University of Pittsburgh, 1986, 204-9.

60．Alberts, Pitt, 207.

61．Barbara Paull, A Century of Medical Excellence: A History of the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 1986, 99 100; Julius Youngner, unpublished autobiography, 39, copy in author's possession.

62．Paull, Century of Medical Excellence, 145-50, 172-74.

63．Ibid, 211; Max Lauffer, "Memorandum: The Virus Research Program," May 22, 1950, University of Pittsburgh Archive.

作为这个职位的候选人，索尔克曾提交过一份愿望清单，其中包括额外的实验室空间、饲养动物的场所、一位秘书、一位技师、7500美元的期望年薪以及“合作研究教授”的第二头衔。不过，他并不认为这些“要求”是他履职的“必要条件”。事实上，索尔克补充说，“如果你能尽力做一些有必要做的事情，我会非常感激。”见University of Pittsburgh Archive.

64．Jonas Salk to John Dingle, August 27, 1947, Folder 5, Box 4, Salk Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 53.

65．Carter, Breakthrough, 54; Jonas Salk to Paul Stumpf, November 26, 1947, Box 4, Folder 8, Salk Papers.

66．Jonas Salk to Dr. W. S. McEllroy, December 9, 1947, Box 4, Folder 7, Salk Papers

67．Ibid.

68．Ibid.; Alberts, Pitt, 216.

7

1．Benison, Tom Rivers, 405.

2．Harry Weaver, "A Formula to Determine the Cost of Research," Journal of the American Medical Colleges, July 1950.

3．Ibid.

4．Benison, Tom Rivers, 444-45; Harry Weaver, "A Formula to Determine the Total Cost of Conducting a Program of Research," in Medical Program, Series 8, Box 8, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).

5．H. W. Weaver to H. Van Riper, "Memorandum Re Payment of Direct Costs," February 1, 1951; Harry Weaver to R. W. Brown, October 17, 1952, both in Medical Program, Series 8 Box 8, "Indirect Costs, 1947—1959," MDA.

6．H. W. Weaver to H. Van Riper, "Memorandum Re Policies Governing Long-Term Grants," April 24, 1947, MDA.

7．Basil O'Connor to Thomas Rivers, July 21, 1947, Basil O'Connor File 6, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

8．Quoted in Henry Lee, "No More Polio," Pageant, November 1953, 18.

9．Carter, Breakthrough, 61-62; also Harry Weaver to Jonas Salk, December 15, 1947, Box 4, Folder 8; August 13, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).

10．See, "Chronology of Events in Salk Research for Polio Vaccine," Jonas Salk File, Edward Litchfield Papers, University of Pittsburgh; Salk to Weaver, July 27, 1948, Salk Papers.

11．Salk to Weaver, August 24, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Salk Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 107.乔纳斯的长子彼得·索尔克回忆说：“我父亲特别重视巡视病区的事儿。人们会流着泪来到他身边。‘求求你了，索尔克博士，求你救救我们的孩子。’那样的悲痛欲绝，他一直铭记。” Author's interview with Peter Salk, November 22,2002.

12．"Research Funds for Pitt Medical School," Box 296, Salk Papers.

13．Neil Seidenberg, "Men and Scenes Behind Salk Vaccine," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 12, 1955; Leonard Engel, "Climax of a Stirring Medical Drama," New York Times Sunday Magazine, January 10, 1954; "Vaccine's Name Irks Salk," Pittsburgh Press, April 12, 1955; "Age of Salk's Aides Averages Under 40," New York Times, April 12, 1945; "The Story Behind the Polio Vaccine," Wisdom, August 1956, 10-16; F. S. Cheever, "Leadership Qualities Draw Skilled, Devoted Workers," Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, August 4, 1959; Salk Team's Mr.

Inside' Honored for Work on Polio Vaccine, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, August 9, 2001. Also Smith, Patenting the Sun, 115-17; Carter, Breakthrough, 69-71; Jonas Salk to Harry Weaver, August 24, 1948, Folder 5, Box 5, Salk Papers.

14．Harry Weaver to Jonas Salk, March 11 (two letters that day), 1949, Folder: 1949, W-Z, Box 6, Salk Papers.

15．Gordon Brown to Jonas Salk, June 17, 1949, Folder: 1949, A-C, Box 5, Ibid.

16．Ibid.

17．Thomas Francis to John Lavan, January 31, 1944, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan; Cohn, Four Billion Dimes, 82.

18．See "Many Monkeys Needed in Vaccine," in M. Beddow Bayly, The Story of the Salk Anti-Poliomyelitis Vaccine, 1956, https://whale.to/vaccine/bayley.

19．Ibid.

20．Thomas Francis to J. N. Hamlet (Director, Okatie Farms), July 15, 1950; Hamlet to Francis, September 21, 1950, File: Monkeys, Box 5, Thomas Francis Papers; "The Unsung Heroes," Newsweek, April 25, 1955; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 121.

21．Carter, Breakthrough, 79.

22．Ibid., 81.

23．Jonas Salk to Albert Sabin, April 15, May 1, 1949, Folder: 1949, P-V, Box 6; Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, June 20, 1951, Folder 3, Box 281; all in Salk Papers.

24．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 234-35.

25．Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, February 23, 1951; Salk to Sabin, March 1, 1951; both in Folder 3, Box 281, Salk Papers.

26．Friedman and Friedland, Medicine's 10 Greatest Discoveries, 133-52.

27．A. B. Sabin and P. K. Olitsky, "Cultivation of poliovirus in vitro in human embryonic tissue," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine, vol. 34, 1936, 357-59.

28．Benison, Tom Rivers, 237.

29．Ibid., 446; Thomas Weller and Frederick Robbins, "John Franklin Enders," unpublished manuscript in author's possession; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 266-69.

30．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 378.

31．Weller and Robbins, "John Franklin Enders"; Frederick Robbins, "Reminiscences of a Virologist," in Daniel and Robbins, Polio, 121-25.

汤姆·韦勒和弗雷德·罗宾斯都出身于一流的科学家庭。罗宾斯的父亲威廉是一位著名的植物生理学家，就职于纽约植物园。韦勒的父亲卡尔是密歇根大学的病理学教授，也是索尔克导师托马斯·弗朗西斯的密友。

32．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 374-75; Robbins, "Reminiscences," 126-28.

33．Robbins, "Reminiscences," 125-26; Simmons, Doctors and Discoveries, 268; Henig, The People's Health, 25-34.

34．Benison, Tom Rivers, 446-47.

35．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin, undated personal note, 1936, File 6, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society.

36．A. B. Sabin, P. K. Olitsky, and H. R. Cox, "Protective Action of Certain Chemicals Against Infection of Monkeys with Nasally Instilled Poliomyelitis Virus," Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 63, 193. Also Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 34-40, 41-42; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, pp. 247-248; Benison, Tom Rivers, 191-92; Berg, Polio, pp. 41-42. A thorough account of the Toronto incident can be found in Christopher Rutty, "The Middle-Class Plague: Epidemic Polio and the Canadian State, 1936-37," Canadian Bulletin of Medical History, 1996, 277-314.

37．Albert Sabin to Dr. Steiglitz, October 14, 1936, Box 3, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati Medical School Archives.

38．Dorothy Horstmann Interview, April 26, 1990, p. 4, in "Daniel Wilson File," Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives. See also Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 385; A. B. Sabin and R. Ward, "Natural History of Human Poliomyelitis; Distribution in Nervous and Non-Nervous Tissue," Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 73, 1941. Also Berg, Polio and Its Problems, 71.

39．H. A. Howe and D. Bodian, "Poliomyelitis in the Chimpanzee," Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 1941, 149-81.

40．Dorothy Horstmann Interview, 17.

41．D. M. Horstmann, "Poliomyeletic in the Blood of Orally Infected Monkeys and Chimpanzees," Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine, vol. 79, 1952; J. F. Fulton to Dorothy Horstmann, February 19, 1953, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.

42．Paul, Poliomyelitis, 389.

8

1．"Summer Season Brings Epidemics of this Uncontrollable Disease," Life, August 15, 1949, p. 47; Steven Spencer, "Where Are We Now on Polio," Saturday Evening Post, September 17, 1949, 26-27, 87-93.

2．"Polio Can Be Conquered," National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, Public Affairs Pamphlet 150, 1949, 1.

3．Albert Sabin to Basil O'Connor, December 6, 1949, copy in Folder 1665, John Enders Papers, Manuscripts Division, Sterling Library, Yale University (hereafter cited as Enders Papers).

4．"Crusader by Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished copy, March of Dimes Archives, White Plains, N.Y. (hereafter cited as MDA).

5．Jonas Salk to John Enders, September 17, 1949, Box 5, Folder 1949 (D-E), Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).

6．John Enders to Jonas Salk, September 26, 1949, ibid.

7．Frederick C. Robbins, "Reminiscences of a Virologist," in Daniel and Robbins, eds., Polio, 1997, 130; John Enders to Albert Sabin, December 8, 1949, Folder 1665, Enders Papers; Williams, Virus Hunters, 269.直至1951年年初，恩德斯还很愿意与索尔克分享科研素材。见Enders to Salk, March 21 and April 12, 1951, Box 176, Enders File, Salk Papers.戴维·博迪恩写给约翰·保罗的一封信里提到了恩德斯对“化学疗法”的狂热，当时博迪恩正在为一本关于脊髓灰质炎的书搜集资料。见Bodian to Paul, May 8, 1967, David Bodian Papers, Chesney Medical Archives, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine (hereafter cited as Bodian Papers).

8．Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 233-39, 382-89.对豪和博迪恩研究工作的最佳总结请参阅：David Bodian,"Howard Atkinson Howe," 1976; Thomas B. Turner, "David Bodian," 1980; "Introductory Remarks: Bodian Symposium in Neuroscience," 1975;以上内容均可参阅博迪恩的论文原稿。

9．Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 237; Howard Howe to David Bodian, October 15, 21, 1940, Howard Howe File, Bodian Papers; Carter, Breakthrough, 134.

10．Bodian to Harvey, March 5, 1975, Bodian Papers; Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan, 100-101; "Research Award Nomination for Dr. Isabel Morgan," 1943, Isabel Morgan File 2, Peter Olitsky Papers, American Philosophical Society (hereafter cited as Olitsky Papers).

11．See Business Manager to Peter Olitsky, April 21, 1938, Box 4, Correspondence, 1935—64, Peter Olitsky File, Archive of Rockefeller Institute, Sleepy Hollow, N.Y.; Benison, Tom Rivers, 409.

12．Benison, Tom Rivers, 457.

13．Peter Olitsky to Dr. William Thalmeier, December 12, 16, 1953, Box 2, Folder: Assorted Correspondence, 1952—54, Olitsky Papers.

14．Author's interview with Eleanor Bodian, June 6, 2003.

15．Ibid.

16．Talk delivered by Walter Schlesinger at the Isabel Morgan Mountain and David Bodian Memorial Symposium at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass., July 25, 1997, copy in author's possession.

17．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 17-40.

18．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 142; Hooper, The River, 479-81.

19．H. Koprowski, T. W. Norton, and W. McDermott, "Isolation of Poliovirus from Human Serum by Direct Inoculation into a Laboratory Mouse," Public Health Reports, 1947, 1467-76.

20．Altman, Who Goes First? 126-58; Oshinsky, "Worse Than Slavery," 190-93; Elizabeth Etheridge, The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra, 1972, 3-39.

21．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 1-2.

22．Charles Little, "Letchworth Village: The Newest State Institution for the Feeble-Minded and Epileptic," The Survey, March 2, 1912; New York State, Office of Mental Retardation, "Letchworth Village," 2003.

23．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 6.

24．Hilary Koprowski, "Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus," in appendix to Irena Koprowski, A Woman Wanders Through Life and Science, 1997, 297-303.

25．Poliomyelitis: A New Approach, The Lancet, March 15, 1952, 552.

26．Benison, Tom Rivers, 461-69.

27．Carter, Breakthrough, 110; Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 15; Koprowski, "Frontiers of Virology: Development of Vaccines Against Polio Virus," 297-303.

28．Carol Saunders, "The Vulnerable Among Us: Protection of Children in Medical Research," Research Nurse, March/April 1996.

29．Paul Freund, "Introduction," in Experimentation With Human Subjects, xii-xviii; Altman, Who Goes First? 1-37.

30．David Bodian statement, May 6, 1960, in David Bodian File, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society.

31．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 16.

32．Edmund Pellegrino, quoted in J. L. Melnick and F. Horaud, "Albert Sabin," Biologicals, December, 1993, 302.

33．Vaughan, Listen to the Music, 54-55.

34．Walter Schlesinger to Peter Olitsky, April 30, 1963, Box 3, Walter Schlesinger File, Olitsky Papers.

35．Interview with Albert Sabin, conducted by Arthur Zitrin, for the documentary "Albert B. Sabin: A Life in Science," copy on file in the archives of the New York University Medical School.

36．Ibid.

37．Ibid.

38．"William Hallock Park," Medical Violet 1939, 43, 163; "Remarks of Albert Sabin," NYU Medical Quarterly, 1987, 3; Benison, Tom Rivers, 359-62.

39．Interview with Albert Sabin.

40．Bellevue Violet 1931, 139.

41．National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, Facts and Figures about Infantile Paralysis (Publication No.59), 1947, 7-9; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 445.

42．Albert Sabin and Arthur Wright, Acute Ascending Myelitis Following a Monkey Bite, With the Isolation of a Virus Capable of Reproducing the Disease, Journal of Experimental Medicine, vol. 59, 1933, 115-17.

43．Benison, Tom Rivers, 234-35.

44．莱丁厄姆博士的这件趣事，见Peter Olitsky to Asa Chandler, September 16, 1954, Sabin File 2, Olitsky Papers.

45．Benison, Tom Rivers, 235; Albert Sabin to Simon Flexner, September 10, 1934; Rufus Cole to Simon Flexner, August 9, 1934; Business Manager to Peter Olitsky, October 1, 1934; all in Box 1, Folder 1, Albert Sabin Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, RA.)

46．Thomas Rivers interview with Richard Carter, quoted in Smith, Patenting the Sun, 147.

47．Igor Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 1986, Box 1, Folder 4, Sabin Papers, RA; Walter Goebel, "Peter K. Olitsky," Peter Olitsky File, American Philosophical Society; Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 384-390.

48．Albert Sabin telegram to Peter Olitsky, September 12, 1935, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers.

49．See "Peter Olitsky Oral History," 58, Archive of Rockefeller Institute; Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 5-6. "Report of Dr. Olitsky (assisted by Drs. Cox and Sabin)," Scientific Reports of the Rockefeller Institute, vol. 24, p. 86.

50．On Theiler, see Benison, Tom Rivers, 413-16, 464; Paul, History of Poliomyelitis, 263-69; Tamm, "Sabin at the Rockefeller," 6-7.

51．比如说，有一次萨宾的薪水略微涨了一点，然后他给所长写了一封谦卑的信：“为了求得安心，我回顾了自己所做的工作，结果发现，我的成就是那么渺小而微不足道，这简直让我心灰意冷。”然后，萨宾向上司保证自己将更加努力工作，追求“我们的终极目标”——解决脊髓灰质炎问题。但是，时间流逝，对于弗莱克斯纳那些主要的脊髓灰质炎理论，例如脊髓灰质炎病毒只有一种、病毒通过鼻腔进入人体、病毒只能在神经组织中繁殖，萨宾逐渐产生了怀疑，最终将它们抛弃。见Albert Sabin to Simon Flexner, June 22, 1935, Box 1, Folder 1, Sabin Papers, RA.

52．Albert Sabin to Herbert Gasser, April 20, 1939, Box 1, Folder 1, Sabin Papers, RA.

53．A Graeme Mitchell to Peter Olitsky, January 23, 1940, Sabin File 8, Olitsky Papers.

54．New York Herald-Tribune, June 23, 1939; New York Times, March 10, 17, 1940.

55．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 27, 1939, File 8, Olitsky Papers.

56．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 6, 1939, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers; Albert Sabin to John Paul, May 14, 1941, Box 8 (1940—41), John Paul Papers, Yale University Archives.

57．Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, June 17, 1941, Sabin File 7, Olitsky Papers.

58．Peter Olitsky to Albert Sabin (no date), Sabin File 1, Olitsky Papers.

59．萨宾的目标是研制出这两种疾病的疫苗。他甚至将病毒样本带回了美国，他说，他希望能“在某些精神病机构里的志愿者身上”进行对照试验。结果，他找了囚犯当志愿者。萨宾高调地给“志愿者”“感染”了病毒——报纸头条写道：“200名囚犯冒着死亡风险参与战争病研究项目”。所有受试者都活了下来，虽然有些人经受了“相当的痛苦”。但新闻中并未提到当局承诺为囚犯提供的回报：减刑和某些额外的特权。见New York Daily News, August 27, 1944; Trenton Times, August 28, 1944; Albert Sabin to Peter Olitsky, August 22, 1943, File 12, Olitsky Papers.

60．Sabin to Olitsky, August 22, 1943, Olitsky Papers; Albert Sabin, "Problems in the Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis At Home and Among Our Armed Forces," paper presented at the Rocky Mountain Conference on Infantile Paralysis, December 1946.

9

1．Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense, 95-96.

2．Alonso Hamby, Man of the People, 1995, 428-29; Eleanor Bontecou, The Federal Loyalty-Security Program, 1953, 35-72.

3．Jonas Salk's FBI Headquarters File Number is 121-22866.1942年，《今日社工》上的一篇文章称赞了索尔克和其他几个人，文章宣称：“这几位男士和女士让《今日社工》变得更加强大，足以应对现在的严酷挑战。”它还称索尔克为“主要合作者”。

4．Bontecou, Federal Loyalty-Security Program, 74-75.

5．See especially, Memo, August 8, 1950, Detroit FBI Office; Memo, August 16, 1950, New York City FBI Office; Memo, August 29, 1950, Los Angeles FBI Office, all in Salk FBI File.

6．Report of Special Agent, August 8, 10, 1950, Detroit; August 29, 1950, Washington; both in Salk FBI File.

7．"Jonas Edward Salk, Synopsis of Facts," August 30, 1951, Salk FBI File.

8．Report of Special Agent, September 8, 1951, San Francisco; September 17, 1951, Dallas; both in Salk FBI File.

9．Hiram Bingham, Chairman, Loyalty Review Board, U.S. Civil Service Commission, to J. Edgar Hoover, FBI Director, November 7, 1952, Salk FBI File.

10．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 18, 2003.

11．Memo, August 10, 1950, Pittsburgh FBI Office, in Salk FBI File.

12．Julius Youngner, Unpublished Memoir, 12; copy in author's possession.

13．On Donna Salk, see Pittsburgh Sun-Telegram, April 12, 1955, July 3, 1960; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 24, 1959, December 30, 1960.

14．Jonas Salk to Harry Weaver, April 10, 1949, Box 5, Folder 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers).

15．Salk to Weaver, June 16, 1950, Box 91, Folder 8, Salk Papers.

16．Ibid.

17．Weaver to Salk, June 22, 1950, Salk papers.

18．See Jonas Salk for the Standards Committee, NFIP, "Immunologic Classification of Poliomyelitis Viruses," for Presentation at Second International Poliomyelitis Congress, September, 1951, Copenhagen, Denmark, copy in Polio Correspondence, 1952, General, Box 4, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati.

19．Carter, Breakthrough, 114.

20．See "Polio Hits Basil O'Connor's Daughter," 87-93, in Cohn, Four Billion Dimes.

21．Carter, Breakthrough, 121.

22．Ibid., 141; Vivien Encel, Australian Genius: 50 Great Ideas, 1988, 55-57.

23．Youngner, Unpublished Memoir, 1-7; Neil Seidenberg, "Men and Scenes Behind Salk Vaccine," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 12, 1955; "Age of Salk's Aides Averages Under 40," New York Times, April 12, 1945; author's interview with Julius Youngner, March 17, 2004.

24．Younger, Unpublished Memoir, 5-7.

25．Ibid. Also Troan, Passport to Adventure, 185-89.

26．Younger, Unpublished Memoir, 5-7. Also Benison, Tom Rivers, 542-43.

27．对199培养基的最佳介绍及康诺特实验室在脊髓灰质炎研究中扮演的角色，请参阅ch.7 in Christopher Rutty, "Do Something! ...Do Anything! Poliomyelitis in Canada, 1927-1962," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Toronto, 1995.

28．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 77.

29．Carter, Breakthrough, 106.

30．See Jonas Salk, "Studies in Human Subjects on Active Immunization Against Poliomyelitis," Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 151, no. 13, 1088-93.

Ⅲ型病毒株来自13岁的吉米·萨科特（Jimmy Sarkett）。医院里的文员写错了样本瓶的标签，把他的名字拼成了索科特（Saukett）。

31．Youngner, "Unpublished Memoir," 7-10; author's interview with Youngner; Carter, Breakthrough, 185, Troan, Passport to Adventure, 189.

32．Benison, Tom Rivers, 490-99; William McD. Hammon, "Standardization Problems Encountered in the Large Scale Manufacture of Poliomyelitis Vaccine in the United States," 1954, unpublished paper in author's possession.

33．Carter, Breakthrough, 131-36.

至少可以说，索尔克的技术报告对萨宾的影响比他愿意承认的更大。几个月后，萨宾写信询问索尔克“你是否愿意让我的合作伙伴J.Wissner博士去你的实验室呆几天，学习你们的组织培养技术？如果有必要的话还可以多呆一段日子。”索尔克同意了。见Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, March 18, 1952, Box 2, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati.

34．关于索尔克何时给自己及儿子接种的疫苗，有一些互相矛盾的说法。熟识索尔克的匹兹堡记者约翰·特罗安写道：“前往波尔克之前，索尔克医生给妻子、三个儿子和自己接种了疫苗。”这应该是1952年。索尔克的传记作者理查德·卡特在20世纪60年代详细采访了索尔克，根据他的说法，索尔克一家接种疫苗的时间是1953年，也就是沃森儿童之家和波尔克学校的首次试验之后。唐娜·索尔克不记得确切的时间，但她表示丈夫在自家的厨房里给全家接种了疫苗，包括他自己。达雷尔·索尔克印证了这一说法。“我记得很清楚，”他说，“一天晚上，乔纳斯回到家里，让我们排好队，然后，砰地一下子……就接种好了。”

《纽约时报》通讯记者劳伦斯·奥尔特曼（Lawrence Altman）曾询问过索尔克是什么时候给自己接种的疫苗。1970年，索尔克的一位助手告诉奥尔特曼，索尔克没有接种疫苗，因为他知道自己体内有脊髓灰质炎抗体。几年后，在一次科学会议上，奥尔特曼偶遇索尔克，于是他直接提出了这个问题。“我问索尔克，你给儿子接种了疫苗，为什么你自己却没有接种。我说，虽然你体内有抗体，但是至少你可以测试一下疫苗的安全性。索尔克坚持说自己注射了疫苗。我又问他，那为什么……（以前的）说法不一样，他说，这是因为他都不知道为什么会有人问这个问题。”

更让人迷惑的是，索尔克实验室的工作人员宣称，对外进行疫苗试验之前，实验室内部人员已经注射了疫苗。事实上，一毛钱进行曲档案馆里有一张未标注日期的索尔克照片，照片里他卷起右臂的袖子，有一位同事正在给他注射脊髓灰质炎疫苗。Troan, Passport to Adventure, 196; Carter, Breakthrough, 170. For Donna Salk, see Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 202; author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 18, 2003; Altman, Who Goes First? 358-59.

35．See Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, "Mental Patients ...Vaccine Research," August 10, 1944, Box 92, Folder 4, Salk Papers.

36．See Gale H. Walker to William C. Brown (Pennsylvania Secretary of Welfare), February 4, 1952, Box 92, Folder 4, Salk Papers.

37．Benison, Tom Rivers, 467.

38．Christine Kindl, "The Creation of a Cure: D. T. Watson Rehabilitation Hospital," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 9, 1990; Smith, Patenting the Sun, 140-42.

39．"Volunteers Recount Their Participation in Historic Trials," June 24, 1995; "Polio Pioneers," July 2, 2002; both in Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.

40．Troan, Passport to Adventure, 193-95.

41．“志愿者追忆当年……”拄着拐杖的科克帕特里克念完了富兰克林·马歇尔学院（Franklin and Marshall College）。“我发现自己不适合搞医学。”后来，他成了一位圣公会牧师。

42．Carter, Breakthrough, 139.

43．Salk, "Studies in Human Subjects," 1098; Carter, Breakthrough, 140.

10

1．Cohen, Shots in the Dark, 31.

2．Washington Post, July 4, 1952; Memo from Roland Berg to Marguerite Clark, July 16, 1952, copy in Polio Epidemic File, Newsweek Morgue, Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin.

3．See Neal Nathanson and John Martin, "The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis: Enigmas Surrounding the Appearance, Epidemicity, and Disappearance," American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 110, 1979, 672-90.

4．Ibid., 675; Albert Sabin, "The Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis," JAMA, vol. 134, 1947, 750.

5．Sabin, Epidemiology of Poliomyelitis, 755-756; also Monroe Lerner and Odin Anderson, Health Progress in the United States, 1963, 152-56.

6．Karl Schriftgiesser, "When 11 of 14 Children Were Hit with Polio," Collier's, November 29, 1952, 17-20.

7．Max J. Fox and John Chamberlain, "Four Fatal Cases of Bulbar Poliomyelitis in One Family," JAMA, March 28, 1953, 1099 1101.

8．T. Francis Jr. et al., "Poliomyelitis Following Tonsillectomy in 5 Members of a Family," Epidemiologic Study, August 22, 1942, 1392.

9．Alice Heaton, "A Friend-and Partner," Good Housekeeping, July 1953, 17, 209-10; "Basil O'Connor: One Man's War Against Disease," Medical World News, January 31, 1964; Dorothy Horstmann interview, 27, in Daniel Wilson File, Dorothy Horstmann Papers, Yale University Archives.

10．"Crusader By Accident: The Biography of Basil O'Connor," unpublished, copy, March of Dimes Archives; for various memoranda, see "Presidential Directives to Staff, 1942—47," Box 3, Basil O'Connor Papers, MDA.

11．Beaton, "Friend-and Partner," 210; Troan, Passport to Adventure, 210.

12．Carter, Breakthrough, 144.

13．Benison, Tom Rivers, 499. Also "Joseph M. Smadel, M.D.," Lasker Foundation Award Winners, www.laskerfoundation.org/awards/library; Thomas Woodward, "History of the Commissions on Immunization and Rickettsial Diseases," https://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/historiesofcomsn/section7.htm.

14．Benison, Tom Rivers, 496-98.

15．Troan, Passport to Adventure, 198.

16．Ibid.; Pittsburgh Press, January 27, 28, 1953.

17．"Vaccine for Polio," Time, February 9, 1953, 43.

18．Albert Sabin to Jonas Salk, February 9, 1953, Box 93, Folder 5, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego.

19．John Paul to Jonas Salk, January 28, 1953, quoted in Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 419.

20．Jonas Salk to John Paul, February 2, 1953, ibid.

21．Wilson, Margin of Safety, 85.

22．Benison, Tom Rivers, vii-xiii, 499.

23．Ibid., 499-501; Carter, Breakthrough, 150-51.

24．Carter, Breakthrough, 152.

25．Ibid., 156.

26．Ibid., 158.

27．A full copy of Salk's text can be found in the Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, March 27, 1953.

28．Ibid., Pittsburgh Sun-Telegraph, March 27, April 2, 1953.

29．Carter, Breakthrough, 176.

30．Benison, Tom Rivers, 502-3; "Basil O'Connor: One Man's War Against Disease," 12.

11

1．Author's interview with Darrell Salk, February 19, 2003; author's interview with Peter Salk, November 22, 2002; Shirley Levine, "Dr. Jonas E. Salk—Scientist with a Mission," Pittsburgh Jewish Outlook, April 10, 1953.

2．财务报告及雇员名单，见Jonas Salk to Dean W. S. McEllroy, January 10, 1953, June 10, 1953, Box 298, Folder 8, Jonas Salk Papers, Mandeville Special Collections, University of California, San Diego (hereafter cited as Salk Papers); Carter, Breakthrough, 212; interview with Don Wegemer, in Seavey, Smith, and Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear, 191-98.

3．Author's interview with Julius Youngner, March 19, 2004.

4．Younger, "Unpublished Memoir," 6-20.

5．"Joseph A. Bell: A Biographical Appreciation," American Journal of Epidemiology, vol. 90, 1969, 464-67; Paul, A History of Poliomyelitis, 422-23; Benison, Tom Rivers, 506-11.

6．Carter, Breakthrough, 177.

7．Joseph A. Bell, "Outline of Considerations and Tentative General Plans for an Epidemiologic Field Trial of a Poliomyelitis Vaccine," September 8, 1953, Folder 4, Box 123, Salk Papers.

8．Albert Sabin, "Present Status and Future Possibilities of a Vaccine for the Control of Poliomyelitis," unpublished, copy in author's possession.

9．Carter, Breakthrough, 179.

10．Benison, Tom Rivers, 509.里弗斯承认，委员会的过度谨慎让索尔克的任务变得更加艰巨，但他没有提到，委员会曾向该领域著名专家弗朗西斯征求意见，弗朗西斯充满信心地表示，脊髓灰质炎疫苗里的佐剂安全有效，而且该佐剂“所有已知特性均与致癌无关”。然后，弗朗西斯建议对（含有佐剂的）索尔克疫苗进行“人体试验”，他表示，“我之所以得出这样的结论，部分是因为我对索尔克博士的工作相对比较熟悉”。但委员会最终拒绝了他的提议。Thomas Francis to Harry Weaver, February 19, 1953, National Foundation File, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers.

11．Carter, Breakthrough, 191-93.

12．Ibid., 177-78.

13．Harry Weaver to Basil O'Connor, August 29, September 1, 1953, Basil O'Connor Papers, March of Dimes Archive, White Plains, N.Y.

有人认为，韦弗之所以离开基金会，是因为对于大规模试验的具体安排，他与自己的直接上司，基金会医学督导哈特·范里佩尔持有不同意见，经过一番争斗，韦弗失败退出。显然，韦弗希望贝尔和疫苗顾问委员会为他提供建议，但重要的决定应该由他来拍板。范里佩尔是一位儿科医生，韦弗觉得他的分量不够，没什么理由信任他。

但范里佩尔的能量不小，他与巴塞尔·奥康纳十分亲厚，而且与医学界关系密切。要成功完成全国性试验，他与医生、护士和公共卫生官员的关系十分重要。总体考量之下，韦弗的离开让奥康纳松了口气。“他曾为我们指明航向，而且他很有才华，”奥康纳说，“现在我们已经进入了港口，而他表现得好像他是唯一应该站在桥上的人。”

Carter, Breakthrough, 181-85.

14．Benison, Tom Rivers, 511; Joseph A. Bell,"Outline of Considerations and Tentative General Plans," Salk Papers.

15．Carter, Breakthrough, 187; "Joseph A. Bell: A Biographical Appreciation," 466.

16．Thomas Rivers to Basil O'Connor, December 3, 1953, Basil O'Connor File 5, Thomas Rivers Papers, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.

17．Albert Sabin to Aims McGuiness, December 15, 22, 1953, Box 5, Albert Sabin Papers, University of Cincinnati (hereafter cited as Sabin Papers, UC).

18．Howard Howe to Albert Sabin, December 29, 1953, Sabin Papers, UC.

19．David Bodian to Albert Sabin, December 9, 1953, Sabin File, David Bodian Papers, Chesney Library, Johns Hopkins Medical School.

20．Thomas Francis to Albert Sabin, December 22, 1953, Box 5, Sabin Papers UC.

21．Carter, Breakthrough, 202-6.

22．Thomas Francis to Harry Weaver, December 29, 1953, Folder: NFIP, Box 51, Thomas Francis Papers, Bentley Library, University of Michigan (hereafter cited as Francis Papers).

23．Carter, Breakthrough, 205-6.

24．"Meeting of Advisory Group on Evaluation of Vaccine Field Trials—Hotel Commodore, New York," January 11, 1954, in Francis Papers.

25．Carter, Breakthrough, 203.

26．Ibid., 204.

27．Paul Meier, "Polio Trial: An Early Efficient Clinical Trial," Statistics in Medicine, vol. 9, 13-16.

28．Hart Van Riper to Carl Neupert, State Health Officer, Wisconsin, November 19, 1953, in File NFIP/Van Riper, Box 16, Francis Papers.

29．Hart Van Riper, "Brief Background Statement for the Polio Vaccine Trial," Francis Papers.

30．Thomas Francis Jr., "Evaluation of the 1954 Poliomyelitis Vaccine Field Trial," JAMA, August 6, 1955, 1266-70; Liza Dawson, "The Salk Polio Vaccine Trial of 1954: Risks, Randomization and Public Involvement in Research,"